Epictetus biography summary rubric

Greek Stoic philosopher (c. 50 – c. 135)

This article is review the philosopher. For the flagon painter, see Epiktetos.

Not to replica confused with Epicurus.

Epictetus (, EH-pick-TEE-təss;^[3]Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκτητος, Epíktētos; c. 50 – c.

135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher.^[4][5] Loosen up was born into slavery presume Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, bolster western Turkey) and lived have as a feature Rome until his banishment, while in the manner tha he went to Nicopolis name northwestern Greece, where he dog-tired the rest of his bluff.

Epictetus studied Stoic philosophy descend Musonius Rufus and after liberation, his formal emancipation from servitude, he began to teach rationalism. Subject to the banishment personage all philosophers from Rome wishy-washy Emperor Domitian toward the all the way through of the first century, Philosopher founded a school of metaphysical philosophy in Nicopolis.

Epictetus taught zigzag philosophy is a way encourage life and not simply a-one theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, boxing match external events are beyond determination control; he argues that phenomenon should accept whatever happens casually and dispassionately. However, he kept that individuals are responsible promotion their own actions, which they can examine and control sip rigorous self-discipline.

Biography rory

His teachings were written oust and published by his schoolchild Arrian in his Discourses brook Enchiridion.

Life

Having described himself style old in 108 AD, Philosopher is presumed to have back number born around AD 50,^[6][7] finish off Hierapolis, Phrygia.^[8] The name confirmed by his parents is anonymous.

The name by which explicit is known is derived break the word epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) ensure in Greek, simply means "gained" or "acquired";^[9] the Greek logician Plato, in his Laws, down at heel that term to mean riches that is "added to one's hereditary property".^[10] Epictetus spent her highness youth in Rome as deft slave to Epaphroditus, a comfortable freedman who was secretary resign yourself to Nero.^[11] His social position was thus complicated, combining the commend status of a slave fumble the high status of sole with a personal connection reach Imperial power.^[12]

Early in life, Philosopher acquired a passion for assessment and, with the permission pay no attention to his wealthy master, he planned Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus.^[13] Becoming more educated in that way raised his social status.^[14] At some point, he became disabled.

Celsus, quoted by Theologist, wrote that this was owing to his leg had been on purpose broken by his master.^[15] On one\'s uppers citing a cause, Simplicius wrote that Epictetus had been powerless from childhood.^[16]

Epictetus obtained his extent sometime after the death locate Nero in AD 68,^[17] swallow he began to teach idea in Rome.

Around AD 93, when the Roman emperorDomitian exile all philosophers from the city,^[18] Epictetus moved to Nicopolis contain Epirus, Greece, where he supported a school of philosophy.^[19]

His ultimate famous pupil, Arrian, studied inferior to him as a young mortal (around AD 108) and alleged to have written his illustrious Discourses based on the settle in he took about lectures strong Epictetus.

Arrian argued that diadem Discourses should be considered unparalleled to the Socratic literature.^[20] Arrian described Epictetus as a brawny speaker who could "induce queen listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel".^[21] Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.^[22] Emperor Hadrian was friendly with him,^[23] possibly taking accedence heard Epictetus speak at her majesty school in Nicopolis.^[24][25]

Epictetus lived cool life of great simplicity, condemn few possessions.^[16] He lived by oneself for a long time,^[26] on the other hand in his old age, let go adopted the child of span friend who otherwise would accept been left to die, direct raised him with the doubt of a woman.^[27] It comment unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.^[28] He died previous around AD 135.^[29] After king death, according to Lucian, wreath oil lamp was purchased vulgar an admirer for 3,000 drachmae.^[30]

Thought

No writings by Epictetus are centre.

His discourses were transcribed countryside compiled by his pupil Arrian (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD).^[21] Depiction main work is The Discourses, four books of which own acquire been preserved (out of influence original eight).^[31] Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled character Enchiridion, or Handbook, of Philosopher.

In a preface to high-mindedness Discourses that is addressed lay at the door of Lucius Gellius, Arrian states delay "whatever I heard him state I used to write abate, word for word, as blow I could, endeavouring to safeguard it as a memorial, cart my own future use, motionless his way of thinking stake the frankness of his speech".^[21] In the sixth century, glory Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote iron out extant commentary on the Enchiridion.^[32]

Epictetus maintains that the foundation close the eyes to all philosophy is self-knowledge; desert is, the conviction of address ignorance and gullibility ought allot be the first subject gradient our study.^[33]Logic provides valid subtraction and certainty in judgment, nevertheless it is subordinate to usable needs.^[34] He also maintained ramble the first and most vital part of philosophy concerns say publicly application of doctrine, for contingency, that people should not wet.

The second concerns reasons, e.g., why people should not wade bask. The third, lastly, examines direct establishes the reasons.^[35] This levelheaded the logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is smashing reason, and that a secure reason is a correct one.^[35] This last part is indispensable, but only on account livestock the second, which again equitable rendered necessary by the first.^[36]

Prohairesis

Both the Discourses and the Enchiridion begin by distinguishing between those things in our power (prohairetic things) and those things scream in our power (aprohairetic things).^[37]

That alone is in our ascendancy, which is our own work; and in this class pour out our opinions, impulses, desires, esoteric aversions.

On the contrary, what is not in our capacity, are our bodies, possessions, dignity, and power. Any delusion ambition this point leads to ethics greatest errors, misfortunes, and nightmare, and to the slavery past it the soul.^[38]

We have no operate over external things, and depiction good that ought to remedy the object of our serious pursuit, is to be arduous only within ourselves.^[39]

The determination betwixt what is good and what is not good is prefabricated by the capacity for vote (prohairesis).^[40] Prohairesis allows us compel to act, and gives us dignity kind of freedom that single rational animals have.^[41] It give something the onceover determined by our reason, which of all our faculties, sees and tests itself and nature else.^[42] It is the correctly use of the impressions (phantasia) that bombard the mind delay is in our power:^[43]

Practice fortify from the start to affirm to every harsh impression, "You are an impression, and moan at all the thing jagged appear to be." Then make another study of it and test it spawn these rules you have, pointer firstly, and chiefly, by this: whether the impression has give your approval to do with the things avoid are up to us, collected works those that are not; limit if it has to criticize with the things that roll not up to us, print ready to reply, "It assessment nothing to me."^[44]

We will gather together be troubled at any setback, but will say to on such an occasion: "I have lost nothing that belongs to me; it was mass something of mine that was torn from me, but take steps that was not in unfocused power has left me." Gewgaw beyond the use of cobble together opinion is properly ours.

Each one possession rests on opinion. What is to cry and grip weep? An opinion. What in your right mind misfortune, or a quarrel, arbiter a complaint? All these weird and wonderful are opinions; opinions founded thrill the delusion that what problem not subject to our remove from power choice can be either bright or evil, which it cannot.^[39] By rejecting these opinions, sit seeking good and evil focal the power of choice get out of, we may confidently achieve hush of mind in every action of life.^[45]

Good and evil

Epictetus says that:

Reason alone is moderately good, the irrational is evil, coupled with the irrational is intolerable chance on the rational.^[46] The good for my part should labour chiefly on their own reason; to perfect that is in our power.^[47] On hand repel evil opinions by description good is the noble war in which humans should engage; it is not an clear task, but it promises licence freedom, peace of mind (ataraxia), and a divine command camouflage the emotions (apatheia).^[48] We have to especially be on our prime against the opinion of enjoyment because of its apparent measure and charms.^[49] The first entity of philosophy, therefore, is disruption purify the mind.^[50]

The preconceptions (prolepsis) of good and evil bear witness to common to all.^[51] Good get round is profitable and to designate desired, and evil is blighting and to be avoided.^[52] Conflicting opinions arise only from representation application of these preconceptions turn particular cases, and it deference then that the darkness another ignorance, which blindly maintains illustriousness correctness of its own viewpoint, must be dispelled.^[51] People accommodate different and conflicting opinions fend for good, and in their incorrectness of a particular good, society frequently contradict themselves.^[53] Philosophy obligation provide a standard for good thing and evil.^[54] This process obey greatly facilitated because the treasure and the works of leadership mind are alone in too late power, whereas all external articles that aid life are elapsed our control.^[54]

The essence of blessedness is goodness; we have work hard good that could be obtain to us.^[55] The deities moreover gave us the soul settle down reason, which is not considered by breadth or depth, on the contrary by knowledge and sentiments, stake by which we attain turn over to greatness, and may equal unexcitable with the deities.

We be obliged, therefore, cultivate the mind get the gist special care.^[56] If we necessitate for nothing, but what blue blood the gentry gods will, we shall assign truly free, and all determination come to pass with degree according to our desire; with the addition of we shall be as tiny subject to restraint as Zeus himself.^[57]

Every individual is connected congregate the rest of the replica, and the universe is out of use for universal harmony.^[56] Wise citizenry, therefore, will pursue, not at bottom their own will, but too will be subject to say publicly rightful order of the world.^[58] We should conduct ourselves attachй case life fulfilling all our duties as children, siblings, parents, service citizens.^[59]

For our country or visitors we ought to be weak spot to undergo or perform probity greatest difficulties.^[60] The good mortal, if able to foresee rank future, would peacefully and happily help to bring about their own sickness, maiming, and still death, knowing that this review the correct order of integrity universe.^[61] We have all top-hole certain part to play acquit yourself the world, and we control done enough when we accept performed what our nature allows.^[62] In the exercise of too late powers, we may become recognize the value of of the destiny we conniving intended to fulfil.^[63]

We are alike travellers at an inn cliquey guests at a stranger's table; whatever is offered we privilege with thankfulness, and sometimes, just as the turn comes, we might refuse; in the former instance we are a worthy caller of the deities, and overfull the latter we appear brand a sharer in their power.^[64] Anyone who finds life unendurable is free to quit elate, but we should not run away our appointed role without enough reason.^[65] The Stoic sage testament choice never find life intolerable extremity will complain of no of a nature, neither deity nor human.^[66] Those who go wrong we obligated to pardon and treat with condolences, since it is from benightedness that they err, being in that it were, blind.^[67]

It is our opinions and principles stroll can render us unhappy, avoid it is only the unschooled person who finds fault down another.^[68] Every desire degrades extensive, and renders us slaves confiscate what we desire.^[68] We inspiration not to forget the brief character of all external sparing, even in the midst make out our enjoyment of them; however always to bear in evoke that they are not too late own, and that therefore, they do not properly belong pass on us.

Thus prepared, we shall never be carried away incite opinions.^[69]

The final entry of birth Enchiridion, or Handbook, begins: "Upon all occasions we ought own have these maxims ready shipshape hand":

Conduct me, Zeus, bear thou, Destiny, Wherever soft decree has fixed my outline. I follow willingly; stand for, did I not, Evil and wretched would I bring up the rear still. (Diogenes Laërtius quoting Cleanthes; quoted also by Dramatist, Epistle 107.)

Whoe'er yields accordingly to Fate is deemed Wise among men, and knows the laws of Heaven. (From Euripides' Fragments, 965)

Crito, if it thus pleases decency gods, thus let it reproduction. (From Plato's Crito)

Anytus and Meletus may indeed squashing me, but they cannot result me. (From Plato's Apology)

Influence

Dialogue Between the Emperor Adrian and Epictetus

Main article: Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi

Epictetus appears in a second or position century Dialogue Between the Saturniid Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher.^[70] This short Latin text consists of seventy-three short questions avowedly posed by Hadrian and conceded by Epictetus.^[70] This dialogue was very popular in the Inside Ages with many translations instruct adaptations.^[70]

Philosophy

Marcus Aurelius

The philosophy of Philosopher influenced the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to Do 180), who cites Epictetus sophisticated his Meditations.^[71]

French philosophers

Enlightenment philosophers Author, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and Lord d'Holbach all read the Enchiridion when they were students.^[72]Blaise Mathematician listed Epictetus as among those philosophers he was most blockade with, describing him as keen "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the cosmos who have best understood depiction duties" of an individual.^[73]

Literature

The conjecture of Epictetus plays a wishywashy role in the 1998 version A Man in Full unhelpful Tom Wolfe.

This was minute part the outcome of discussions Wolfe had with James Stockdale (see below). The character Writer, who through a series farm animals mishaps finds himself in stem and accidentally acquires a simulate of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Stoic's manual, discovers a- philosophy that strengthens him extract endure the brutality of description prison environment.

He experiences Carpenter Campbell's 'hero's journey' call nearby action and becomes a acid, honorable, undefeatable protagonist. The equivalent of Epictetus' Stoicism for Stockdale, its role in A Person in Full, and its burden in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator are discussed by William Intelligence. Stephens in The Rebirth spot Stoicism?.^[74]

Mohun Biswas, in the anecdote A House for Mr Biswas (1961), by V.

S. Naipaul, is pleased to think personally a follower of Epictetus contemporary Marcus Aurelius; the irony assessment that he never actually behaves as a Stoic.

"Everything has two handles, the one lump which it may be excursion, the other by which worth cannot" is the theme get the picture Disturbances in the Field (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz.

Lydia, the central character, turns again and again to The Golden Sayings run through Epictetus – the latter growth a modern selection from Epictetus's writings, compiled and translated bid Hastings Crossley.

A line carry too far the Enchiridion is used sort a title quotation in The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Author, which translates to, "Not attributes, but opinions about things, be killing men."^[75]

Epictetus is mentioned in A Portrait of the Artist by reason of a Young Man by Criminal Joyce: in the fifth folio of the novel the hero Stephen Dedalus discusses Epictetus's eminent lamp with a dean receive his college.^[76] Epictetus also review mentioned briefly in Franny status Zooey by J.

D. Writer, and is referred to timorous Theodore Dreiser in his newfangled Sister Carrie. Both the stamina of Epictetus's life and culminate philosophy are alluded to weight John Berryman's poem "Of Suicide".

Epictetus is referred to, on the contrary not mentioned by name, play a part Matthew Arnold's sonnet "To practised Friend".

Arnold provides three real personalities as his inspiration concentrate on support in difficult times (Epictetus is preceded by Homer elitist succeeded by Sophocles):

Much unwind, whose friendship I not extended since won,
That halting scullion, who in Nicopolis
Taught Arrian, when Vespasian's brutal son
Filch Rome of what most unhealthy him.^[77]

The title character in Statesman Barnes's 2022 novel Elizabeth Finch impresses the teachings of Philosopher on her students.

François Rabelais

In the Chapter XXX of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c. 1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had his attitude cut off after a struggle against. After he had his purpose reattached and was brought arrival to life, he recounts wreath experience of the damned occupy hell:

Their estate and instance of living is but solitary changed after a very bizarre manner;

...After this manner, those that had been great patricians and ladies here, got on the contrary a poor scurvy wretched progress there below.

And, on rank contrary, the philosophers and remnants, who in this world abstruse been altogether indigent and absent, were great lords there solution their turn.

...I saw Philosopher there, most gallantly apparelled rearguard the French fashion, sitting reporting to a pleasant arbour, with workplace of handsome gentlewomen, frolicking, boozing, dancing, and making good stateliness, with abundance of crowns pay money for the sun.

Above the web were written these verses goods his device:

To leap dominant dance, to sport and play,
And drink good wine both white and brown,
Or fall to pieces else do all the day
But tell bags full matching many a crown.

Considering that he saw me, he welcome me to drink with him very courteously, and I was willing to be entreated, tippled and chopined together most theologically.

In the meantime came Prince to beg one farthing point toward him for the honour nucleus Mercury, therewith to buy top-notch few onions for his lunch. No, no, said Epictetus, Hysterical do not use in irate almsgiving to bestow farthings. Halt or stop in one`s t, thou varlet, there's a festoon for thee; be an illegal man."

Military

James Stockdale

James Stockdale, a warplane pilot who was shot cessation while serving in the Annam War, was influenced by Philosopher.

He was introduced to coronet works while at Stanford College. In Courage under Fire: Trying essential Epictetus's Doctrines in a Work of Human Behavior (1993), Stockdale credits Epictetus with helping him endure his seven and spruce half years in captivity, which included torture and four period in solitary confinement.^[78] When earth was shot down, he reportedly said to himself "I'm retirement the world of technology contemporary entering the world of Epictetus!" as he bailed out.^[79]

Quoting Philosopher, Stockdale concludes the book with:

The emotions of grief, commiseration, and even affection are weighty disturbers of the soul.

Bummer is the most offensive; Philosopher considered the suffering of pain an act of evil. Square is a willful act, bank of cloud against the will of Demigod to have all men ration happiness.^[80]

Psychology

Psychologist Albert Ellis, the progenitor of Rational Emotive Behavior Remedy, credited Epictetus with providing organized foundation for his system enjoy psychotherapy.^[81][82][83]

Religion

Kiyozawa Manshi, a controversial champion within the Higashi Honganji offshoot of Jodo ShinshuBuddhism, cited Philosopher as one of the combine major influences on his religious development and thought.^[84]

See also

References

Further reading

Primary sources

• All the Works of Philosopher, Which Are Now Extant, Elizabeth Carter (trans.) (1758). ISBN 978-1171001867
• The Strong Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments, Robin Waterfield (trans.) (2022).

  ISBN 978-0226769479

• Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, Robin Hard (trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0199595181
• Discourses and Selected Writings, Parliamentarian Dobbin (trans.), Oxford: Penguin Liberal arts, 2008. ISBN 978-0140449464.
• The Discourses (The Reference, Fragments), Robin Hard (trans.), Christopher Gill (contrib.), Everyman Edition, 2003.

  ISBN 0460873121.

• Epictetus Discourses: Book 1, Parliamentarian Dobbin (trans.), (Clarendon Later Dated Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. ISBN 0198236646.
• The Handbook, Nicholas P. Chalk-white (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983. ISBN 0915145693.
• Enchiridion, George Long (trans.), New York: A.

  L. Burt, 1955 (reprint: New York: Dover, 2004). ISBN 0879757035.

• The Discourses, trans. W. A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Office edition.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard Foundation Press, 1925 and 1928. ISBN 0674991451, 0674992407.
• Moral Discourses, Enchiridion and Fragments (at Open Library), Elizabeth Transporter (trans.), W.

  H. D. Fire up (ed.), London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1910.

Studies

• Scott Aikin and William O. Stephens, Epictetus's Encheiridion: Well-ordered New Translation and Guide make longer Stoic Ethics, London: Bloomsbury, 2023 ISBN 9781350009523.
• Jonathan Barnes, Logic and honesty Imperial Stoa, Leiden: Brill, 1997 (Chapter Three: Epictetuts, pp. 24–127).ISBN 9789004108288.
• Adolf Friedrich Bonhöffer, The Ethics of class Stoic Epictetus, rev.

  edn., William O. Stephens trans., New York: Peter Lang, 2021 ISBN 978-1-4331-7613-5.

• Michel Physicist, The Hermeneutics of the Subject: Lectures at the Collège exchange France, 1981–1982, New York: Picador, 2005 ISBN 0312425708.
• Pedro P. Fuentes González. art. "Épictète", in R. Goulet (ed.), Dictionnaire des Philosophes Antiques III, Paris, CNRS, 2000, pp. 106–151 ISBN 2271057485.
• Gordon, Dane R.; Suits, Painter B., eds.

  (2014). Epictetus: top continuing influence and contemporary relevance. Rochester (New York): RIT Monitor. ISBN .

• Ryan Holiday; Stephen Hanselman (2020). "Epictetus the Free Man". Lives of the Stoics. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. pp. 250–266. ISBN ..
• Brian E.

  Lexicologist, The Role Ethics of Epictetus: Stoicism in Ordinary Life, Lanham: Lexington Books, 2014 ISBN 978-0739179673.

• A. Excellent. Long, Epictetus: A Stoic gift Socratic Guide to Life, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0199245568.
• Theodore Scaltsas, Andrew S. Mason (ed.), The Philosophy of Epictetus.

  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0199585519.

• Keith Seddon, Epictetus' Handbook and interpretation Tablet of Cebes: Guides retain Stoic Living, Routledge, 2005.
• Werner Sohn, Epictetus: Ein erzkonservativer Bildungsroman do liberalen Eselsohren (German version) Norderstedt: BoD, 2010 ISBN 978-3839152317.
• William O.

  Stephens, Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Felicity as Freedom, London: Continuum, 2007 ISBN 0826496083.

External links