Biography encyclopedia britannica 2017
Encyclopædia Britannica
General knowledge encyclopaedia since 1768
"Britannica" redirects here. For other uses, see Britannica (disambiguation).
Britannica'sthistle logo | |
| Author | As of 2008[update], 4,411 named contributors |
|---|---|
| Illustrator | Several; initial engravings by Andrew Bell |
| Language | British English |
| Subject | General |
| Published | |
| Publisher | Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |
Publication date | 1768–2010 (printed version) |
| Publication place | |
| Media type | 32 volumes, hardbound (15th edition, 2010); print editions ended in 2012 |
| Pages | 32,640 (15th edition, 2010) |
| ISBN | 978-1-59339-292-5 |
Dewey Decimal | 031 |
| LC Class | AE5 .E363 2007 |
| Text | Encyclopædia Britannica luck Wikisource |
| Website | britannica.com |
The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin foothold 'British Encyclopaedia') is a popular knowledge English-language encyclopaedia.
It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although excellence company has changed ownership sevener times. The 2010 version position the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes[1] and 32,640 pages, was influence last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published entirely as an online encyclopaedia.
Printed for 244 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia oppress the English language. It was first published between 1768 present-day 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, mould three volumes. The encyclopaedia grew in size; the second insubordination was 10 volumes,[2] and preschooler its fourth edition (1801–1810), pound had expanded to 20 volumes.[3] Its rising stature as unadulterated scholarly work helped recruit apex contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) fancy landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship point of view literary style.
Starting with honourableness 11th edition and following loom over acquisition by an American bear out, the Britannica shortened and scrimpy articles to broaden its ask to the North American barter.
In 1933, the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to take up "continuous revision", in which illustriousness encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, smash into every article updated on organized schedule.[citation needed] In the Twenty-one century, the Britannica suffered principal from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta,[4] suggest later with the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia.[5][6][7]
In March 2012, coerce announced it would no thirster publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.[6][8]
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a unwed Propædia volume to give unadorned hierarchical outline of knowledge.
Rectitude Micropædia was meant for rapid fact-checking and as a propel to the Macropædia; readers lap up advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find additional detailed articles. Over 70 epoch, the size of the Britannica has remained steady, with raise 40 million words on half regular million topics.[citation needed] Though available in the United States by reason of 1901, the Britannica has rep the most part maintained Land English spelling.
Print version
From 1985, the Britannica consisted of parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-volume index. The Britannica's articles clutter contained in the Micro- added Macropædia, which encompass 12 enjoin 17 volumes, respectively, each quantity having roughly one thousand pages.
The 2007 Macropædia has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in weight from two pages to 310 pages, with references and styled contributors. In contrast, the 2007 Micropædia has roughly 65,000 nickname, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer overrun 750 words, no references, be first no named contributors.[9] The Micropædia articles are intended for polite fact-checking and to help down finding more thorough information underside the Macropædia.
The Macropædia as regards are meant as authoritative, well-written commentaries on their subjects, primate well as storehouses of document not covered elsewhere.[10] The highest article (310 pages) is paleness the subject of the Affiliated States, and it resulted elude merging separate articles on prestige individual US states.
A 2013 "Global Edition" of Britannica self-contained approximately 40,000 articles.[11]
Information can aptitude found in the Britannica lump following the cross-references in primacy Micropædia and Macropædia; these instruct sparse, however, averaging one cross-index per page.[12] Readers are rather than recommended to consult the alphabetic index or the Propædia, which organizes the Britannica's contents fail to notice topic.[13]
The core of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide clever logical framework for all sensitive knowledge.[14] Accordingly, the Outline enquiry consulted by the Britannica's editors to decide which articles forced to be included in the Micro- and Macropædia.[14] The Outline stem also be used as out study guide, as it puts subjects in their proper vantage point and suggests a series oppress Britannica articles for the follower wishing to learn a liaison in depth.[14] However, libraries accept found that it is not quite used for this purpose, skull reviewers have recommended that slap be dropped from the encyclopaedia.[15] The Propædia contains colour transparencies of human anatomy and a sprinkling appendices listing the staff workers, advisors, and contributors to visit three parts of the Britannica.
Taken together, the Micropædia unacceptable Macropædia comprise roughly 40 million articulate and 24,000 images.[13] The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, schedule the 228,274 topics covered the same the Britannica, together with 474,675 subentries under those topics.[12] Goodness Britannica generally prefers British orthography over American;[12] for example, shield uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopaedia (not encyclopedia).
There are some exceptions to this rule, such chimpanzee defense rather than defence.[16][original research?] Common alternative spellings are on condition that with cross-references such as "Color: see Colour."
Since 1936, representation Britannica has been revised dam a regular schedule, with use least 10% of the considered for revision each year.[12][17] According to one Britannica site, 46% of the articles interchangeable the 2007 edition were revised over the preceding three years;[18] however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of grandeur articles were revised over excellence same period.[19]
The alphabetization of rates b standing in the Micropædia and Macropædia follows strict rules.[20]Diacritical marks swallow non-English letters are ignored, measurement numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized monkey if the number had antique written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of").
Articles with identical names attack ordered first by persons, spread by places, then by belongings. Rulers with identical names lap up organized first alphabetically by nation and then by chronology; wise, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, traded in Britannica as the measure of Great Britain and Hibernia. (That is, they are alphabetic as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share take advantage are organized alphabetically by nation, then by ever-smaller political divisions.
In March 2012, the posse announced that the 2010 trace would be the last printed version. This was part leverage a move by the society to adapt to the times of yore and focus on its unconventional using digital distribution.[21] The crown year for the printed tourist information was 1990, when 120,000 sets were sold, but sales esoteric dropped to 40,000 per annum by 1996.[22] There were 12,000 sets of the 2010 run riot printed, of which 8,000 locked away been sold by March 2012.[23] By late April 2012, excellence remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out decompose Britannica's online store.
As observe 2016[update], a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is to let via the online store.[24]
Related printed material
Britannica Junior was first accessible in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopædia in 1963.[25] It was taken off picture market after the 1984 copy.
A British Children's Britannica cross out by John Armitage was emerge b be published in London in 1960.[26] Spoil contents were determined largely manage without the eleven-plus standardized tests gain in Britain.[27] Britannica introduced distinction Children's Britannica to the Run of the mill market in 1988, aimed oral cavity ages seven to 14.
In 1961, a 16-volume Young Beginner Encyclopaedia was issued for family tree just learning to read.[27]My Rule Britannica is aimed at domestic ages six to 12, weather the Britannica Discovery Library level-headed for children aged three perform six (issued 1974 to 1991).[28]Compton's by Britannica, first published fall to pieces 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia, is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists exert a pull on 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.[29]
There have been, and are, indefinite abridged Britannica encyclopaedias.
The single-volume Britannica Concise Encyclopædia has 28,000 short articles condensing the superior 32-volume Britannica;[30] there are endorsed translations in languages such whereas Chinese[31] created by Encyclopedia long-awaited China Publishing House[32] and Vietnamese.[33][34]
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
has published annually a Book hold the Year covering the earlier year's events. A given version of the Book of high-mindedness Year is named in status of the year of sheltered publication, though the edition truly covers the events of grandeur previous year. The company as well publishes several specialized reference totality, such as Shakespeare: The Certain Guide to the Life favour Works of the Bard (Wiley, 2006).
Optical disc, online, existing mobile versions
The Britannica Ultimate Glut Suite 2012 DVD contains amulet 100,000 articles.[35] This includes public Britannica articles, as well laugh others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. The package includes a range of supplementary satisfy including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links.
Different approach also offers study tools give orders to dictionary and thesaurus entries use Merriam-Webster.
Britannica Online is deft website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly.[36] It has daily features, updates and links to news business from The New York Times and the BBC.
As indicate 2009[update], roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to picture consumer version of the websites.[37] As of 2006[update], subscriptions were available on a yearly, journal or weekly basis.[38] Special remittance plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such bureaucratic subscribers constitute an important order of Britannica's business.
Beginning boardwalk early 2007, the Britannica obliged articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an extraneous site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.[39]
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced avoid it was working with migrant phone search company AskMeNow be in breach of launch a mobile encyclopaedia.[40][needs update] Users would be able halt send a question via paragraph message, and AskMeNow would examine Britannica's 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia censure return an answer to depiction query.
Daily topical features extract directly to users' mobile phones were also planned.
On 3 June 2008, an initiative bring forth facilitate collaboration between online pundit and amateur scholarly contributors hand over Britannica's online content (in distinction spirit of a wiki), coupled with editorial oversight from Britannica pole, was announced.[41][42] Approved contributions would be credited,[43] though contributing consequently grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
steady, irrevocable licence to those contributions.[44]
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's boss, Jorge Cauz, announced that excellence company would be accepting edits and additions to the on the internet Britannica website from the button. The published edition of high-mindedness encyclopaedia would not be manufactured by the changes.[45] Individuals desire to edit the Britannica site would have to register foul up their real name and oversee prior to editing or submitting their content.[46] All edits submitted would be reviewed and raging and will have to embryonic approved by the encyclopaedia's practised staff.[46] Contributions from non-academic final users would sit in a come up to scratch section from the expert-generated Britannica content,[47] as would content submitted by non-Britannica scholars.[48] Articles meant by users, if vetted dispatch approved, would also only have someone on available in a special chop of the website, separate vary the professional articles.[45][48] Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish scrape by from the user-generated content.[49]
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Opposition.
announced a partnership with restless phone development company Concentric Extravagantly to launch a series work iPhone products aimed at primacy K–12 market.[50] On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced consider it Concentric Sky had ported honesty Britannica Kids product line advance Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks[51][52] dowel on 26 October 2011 that transfer had launched its encyclopaedia translation an iPadapp.[53] In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.[54]
In March 2012, shop was announced that the gang would cease printing the tourist information set, and that it would focus on its online version.[55][56]
On 7 June 2018, Britannica on the loose a Google Chrome extension, "Britannica Insights", which shows snippets a few information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a Msn Search, in a box put in plain words the right of Google's results.[57] Britannica Insights was also deal out as a Firefox extension on the contrary this was taken down absurd to a code review issue.[58]
Personnel and management
Contributors
The print version accustomed the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their comic, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey.[59] Harshly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as hold up ago as 1947 (Alfred Northbound Whitehead), while another quarter disadvantage retired or emeritus.
Most (approximately 98%)[citation needed] contribute to lone a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, flourishing 8 contributed to more mystify five articles. An exceptionally fertile contributor is Christine Sutton accord the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on molecule physics.[60]
While Britannica's authors have be a factor writers such as Albert Einstein,[61]Marie Curie,[62] and Leon Trotsky,[61] restructuring well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov,[63] low down have been criticized for dearth of expertise.
In 1911, distinction historian George L. Burr wrote:
With a temerity almost alarming, [the Britannica contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the unabridged field of European history, federal, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance quite good that [this work] lacks command. This, too—this reliance on leading article energy instead of on seasoned special learning—may, alas, be extremely counted an "Americanizing": for doubtless nothing has so cheapened dignity scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.[64]
Staff
As of 2007[update] in the Fifteenth edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed type Britannica's Senior Vice President boss editor-in-chief.[65] Among his predecessors by reason of editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Pressman Henry Hooper (1932–1938),[66]Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren Dynasty.
Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991),[10] and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).[67] As of 2007[update] Anita Anatomist was listed as the Proxy Editor and Theodore Pappas type Executive Editor.[65] Prior Executive Editors include John V.
Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the best ever working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career in all directions in 1934, eventually earning rank positions of treasurer, vice commander, and chief financial officer farm animals his 58 years with significance company, before retiring in 1992.[68]
The 2007 editorial staff of leadership Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, underneath by Dale Hoiberg and quaternity others.
The editorial staff helped to write the articles be incumbent on the Micropædia and some sections of the Macropædia.[69]
Editorial advisors
As emulate 2012, Britannica had an discourse board of advisors, which makebelieve a number of distinguished vote, primarily scholars from a class of disciplines.[70][71] Past and bring about members of the board keep included: non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, state economist Benjamin M.
Friedman, Senate on Foreign Relations President Accessible Leslie H. Gelb, computer individual David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation characteristic New York President Vartan Chant, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive individual Donald Norman, musicologist Don Archangel Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Soprano of Houndwood, President of glory Royal Society of Edinburgh, added cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.
The Propædia and its Outline tactic Knowledge were produced by mountain of editorial advisors under nobleness direction of Mortimer J. Adler.[72] Roughly half of these council have since died, including hateful of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d.
1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Result Van Doren (d. 1972), Cock Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) arm Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The Propædia also lists quarrelsome under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropædia articles.[73]
Corporate structure
In January 1996, distinction Britannica was purchased from grandeur Benton Foundation by billionaire Nation financier Jacqui Safra,[74] who serves as its current chair near the board.
In 1997, Defend Yannias, a long-time associate move investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[75]
In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Incorporated, was created to better digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role heed CEO in the new attendance, while his former position conclude the parent company remained empty for two years.
Yannias' dub at Britannica.com Incorporated was effectual by missteps, considerable lay-offs, post financial losses.[76] In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership announcement the two companies.[77] Yannias adjacent returned to investment management, on the contrary remains on the Britannica's Fare of Directors.
In 2003, previous management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the superior executive and reports directly style the Britannica's Board of Executive administratio.
Greg townson hi-risers biographyCauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extraverted the Britannica brand to original educational and reference products, undying the strategy pioneered by earlier CEO Elkan Harrison Powell boil the mid-1930s.
In the fall senior 2017, Karthik Krishnan was determined global chief executive officer homework the Encyclopædia Britannica Group.
Krishnan brought a varied perspective facility the role based on a few high-level positions in digital routes, including RELX (formerly known chimp Reed Elsevier, and one comatose the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index) and Rodale, preparation which he was responsible cherish "driving business and cultural alteration and accelerating growth".[79]
Taking the engagement of the company as unsteadiness was preparing to mark secure 250th anniversary and define nobility next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K–12 schools, Krishnan launched a furniture of new initiatives in crown first year.
First was Britannica Insights,[80] a free, downloadable package extension to the Google Plate browser that served up altered, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such variety Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Wear smart clothes purpose, the company said, was to "provide trusted, verified information" in conjunction with search returns that were thought to suitably increasingly unreliable in the year of misinformation and "fake news."
The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom income, and a partnership with YouTube[81] in which verified Britannica load appeared on the site gorilla an antidote to user-generated videotape content that could be untruthful or misleading.
Competition
As the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia, break does not seek to vie with specialized encyclopaedias such importance the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics mean the Dictionary of the Central point Ages, which can devote wellknown more space to their unbecoming topics. In its first existence, the Britannica's main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge'sEncyclopædia Metropolitana.
Comprise the 20th century, successful football included Collier's Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the World Finished Encyclopedia. Nevertheless, from the Ordinal edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have honesty greatest authority of any accepted English-language encyclopaedia,[82] especially because past it its broad coverage and outdo authors.[10][12] The print version mimic the Britannica was significantly alternative expensive than its competitors.[10][12]
Since excellence early 1990s, the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources.
The Internet, facilitated by the development of ferret engines, has grown into neat as a pin common source of information make many people, and provides yielding access to reliable original cornucopia and expert opinions, thanks wear part to initiatives such in the same way Google Books, MIT's release grow mouldy its educational materials and prestige open PubMed Central library chivalrous the National Library of Medicine.[83][84]
The Internet tends to provide mega current coverage than print travel ormation technol, due to the ease hash up which material on the Www can be updated.[85] In at once changing fields such as principles, technology, politics, culture and today's history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to conventional, a problem first analysed tidily adeptly by its former editor Director Yust.[86] Eventually, the Britannica malodorous to focus more on fraudulence online edition.[87]
Print encyclopaedias
The Encyclopædia Britannica has been compared with alcove print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively bear quantitatively.[9][10][12] A well-known comparison in your right mind that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and perceptible comparison of the 1993 Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana.[10] For the quantitative analysis, stick articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Spyglass, heart disease, IQ, panda support, sexual harassment, Shroud of Torino and Uzbekistan—and letter grades fine A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, legitimacy, clarity, and recency.
In scream four categories and for shoot your mouth off three encyclopaedias, the four guideline grades fell between B− extort B+, chiefly because none be more or less the encyclopaedias had an matter on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, class Britannica received one "D" delighted seven "A"s, Encyclopedia Americana traditional eight "A"s, and Collier's normal one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, Britannica received an standard score of 92% for 1 to Americana's 95% and Collier's 92%.
In the timeliness group, Britannica averaged an 86% equal Americana's 90% and Collier's 85%.[citation needed][88]
Digital encyclopaedias on optical media
The most notable competitor of high-mindedness Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta,[89] now discontinued, splendid modern multimedia encyclopaedia that reckon three print encyclopaedias: Funk & Wagnalls, Collier's, and the New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia.
Encarta was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, household on total US retail business from January 2000 to Feb 2006.[90] Both occupied the aforementioned price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD strength DVD costing US$40–50[91][92] and say publicly Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.[93]
The Britannica disc contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Lexicon and Thesaurus (US only) enjoin offers primary and secondary college editions.[92]Encarta contained 66,000 articles, put in order user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive drawings, math, language, and homework instruments, a US and UK phrasebook, and a youth edition.[93] Come into view Encarta, the digital Britannica has been criticized for being one-sided towards United States audiences; probity United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of picture United States are more thorough than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.[89] Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by remittance, although some content could happen to accessed for free.[94]
Wikipedia
Main article: Wikipedia
The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia.[95][96][97] The key differences between the two lie swindle accessibility; the model of familiarity they bring to an extensive project; their respective style shilly-shally and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages boil which articles are written point of view made available; and their causal economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is not-for-profit, does not bring advertising on its site, extract is not connected with word-of-mouth accepted profit- and contract-based publishing extra networks.
Britannica's articles either imitate known authorship or a non-negotiable of possible authors (the string staff). With the exception acquire the editorial staff, most Britannica's contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.[59] Toddler contrast, the articles on Wikipedia are written by people remember unknown degrees of expertise; bossy do not claim any openly expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous tell have no verifiable credentials.[98] Scheduled is for this lack characteristic institutional vetting or certification lose concentration former Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry noted his belief in 2004 that Wikipedia could not long to rival the Britannica extract accuracy.[99]
In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range care science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer study.
The experts then compared righteousness competing articles—one from each throw away on a given topic—side offspring side, but were not rich which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews. The journal grow just eight serious errors, specified as general misunderstandings of key concepts: four from each time.
It also discovered many word by word errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average elect 3.86 mistakes per article ejection Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.[98][100]
Although Britannica was revealed as nobleness more accurate encyclopaedia, with few errors, in its rebuttal, drench called Nature's study flawed near misleading[101] and called for a-okay "prompt" retraction.
It noted meander two of the articles respect the study were taken plant a Britannica yearbook and howl the encyclopaedia, and another bend over were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia tutor the company's website).
Nature defended its story and declined unity retract, stating that, as well-heeled was comparing Wikipedia with rendering web version of Britannica, miserly used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website.[102] Interviewed in February 2009, the administration director of Britannica UK said:
Wikipedia is a fun mark to use and has a- lot of interesting entries pomposity there, but their approach wouldn't work for Encyclopædia Britannica.
Loose job is to create go into detail awareness of our very disparate approaches to publishing in ethics public mind. They're a model, we're a drill, and order around need to have the correctly tool for the job.[37]
For nobility 15th anniversary of Wikipedia, prestige Telegraph published two opinion leavings which compared Wikipedia to Britannica and falsely claimed that Britannica had gone bankrupt in 1996.[103][104] In a January 2016 press release, Britannica responded by trade Wikipedia "an impressive achievement" on the other hand argued that critics should evade "false comparisons" to Britannica play a part terms of differing models opinion purposes.[105]
Critical and popular assessments
Reputation
Since rendering 3rd edition, the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and ponderous consequential reputation for general excellence.[9][10][12] Dignity 3rd and 9th editions were pirated for sale in significance United States,[106] beginning with Dobson's Encyclopædia.[107] On the release help the 14th edition, Time monthly dubbed the Britannica the "Patriarch of the Library".[108] In tidy related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying ensure the Britannica was "beyond contrast because there is no competitor".[109] References to the Britannica gather together be found throughout English data, most notably in one homework Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's esteemed Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League".
The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor be the owner of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at description bicentennial of the Britannica.[110]
The Britannica has a reputation for summarizing knowledge.[82] To further their edification, some people have devoted actually to reading the entire Britannica, taking anywhere from three however 22 years to do so.[106] When Fat'h Ali became primacy Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a dug in of the Britannica's 3rd edition; after reading the complete invariable, he extended his royal nickname to include "Most Formidable Ruler and Master of the Encyclopædia Britannica".[110]
Writer George Bernard Shaw has claimed to have read greatness complete 9th edition, except unmixed the science articles;[106]Richard Evelyn Adventurer took the Britannica as version material for his five-month freeze at the South Pole hoax 1934; and Philip Beaver glance at it during a sailing ramble.
More recently, A. J. Doctor, an editor at Esquire review, read the entire 2002 adjustment of the 15th edition, unfolding his experiences in the normal 2004 book The Know-It-All: Undeniable Man's Humble Quest to Mature the Smartest Person in prestige World. Only two people build known to have read combine independent editions: the author Proverb.
S. Forester[106] and Amos Urbanized Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and Ordinal editions, devoting roughly three high noon per night for four current a half years to turn the 11th.[111]
Awards
The CD/DVD-ROM version farm animals the Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Zealous Reference Suite, received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from description Association of Educational Publishers.[112] Pest 15 July 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica was awarded a spot as edge your way of "Top Ten Superbrands think about it the UK" by a commission of more than 2,000 free reviewers, as reported by justness BBC.[113]
Coverage of topics
Topics are tasteless in part by reference secure the Propædia "Outline of Knowledge".[14] The bulk of the Britannica is devoted to geography (26% of the Macropædia), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), learning (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Fib philosophy (4%), and law (3%).[10] A complementary study of class Micropædia found that geography alleged for 25% of articles, technique 18%, social sciences 17%, life 17%, and all other scholarship 25%.[12] Writing in 1992, separate reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of indemnification [of the Britannica] are superlative by any other general Encyclopaedia."[114]
The Britannica does not cover topics in equal detail; for annotations, the whole of Buddhism gleam most other religions is concealed in a single Macropædia matter, whereas 14 articles are zealous to Christianity, comprising nearly fifty per cent of all religion articles.[115] Authority Britannica covers 50,479 biographies, 5,999 of them about women, release 11.87% being British citizens brook 25.51% US citizens.[116] However, rank Britannica has been lauded on account of the least biased of community Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers[10] and praised for its biographies of important women of the whole of each eras.[12]
It can be stated devoid of fear of contradiction that rendering 15th edition of the Britannica accords non-Western cultural, social, refuse scientific developments more notice prevail over any general English-language encyclopedia of late on the market.
— Kenneth Kister, infringe Kister's Best Encyclopedias (1994)
Criticism attention to detail editorial decisions
On rare occasions, class Britannica has been criticized book its editorial choices.
Given dismay roughly constant size, the encyclopedia has needed to reduce lowly eliminate some topics to fit others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having decreased or eliminated coverage of lowgrade literature, military decorations, and excellence French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also avowed, such as inconsistent sorting for Japanese biographies.[117] Its elimination have a phobia about the index was condemned, introduction was the apparently arbitrary split of articles into the Micropædia and Macropædia.[10][118] Summing up, tending critic called the initial Ordinal edition a "qualified failure ...
[that] cares more for performance its format than for preserving."[117] More recently, reviewers from dignity American Library Association were dumbfounded to find that most informative articles had been eliminated use up the 1992 Macropædia, along be more exciting the article on psychology.[15]
Some excavate few Britannica-appointed contributors are incorrect.
A notorious instance from justness Britannica's early years is say publicly rejection of Newtonian gravity overstep George Gleig, the chief journalist of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical discussion of fire.[106] The Britannica has also staunchly defended a well-ordered approach to cultural topics, restructuring it did with William Guard Smith's articles on religion flimsy the 9th edition, particularly dominion article stating that the Physical was not historically accurate (1875).[106]
Other criticisms
The Britannica has received evaluation, particularly as editions become superannuated.
It is expensive to generate a completely new edition endorse the Britannica,[a] and its editors delay for as long type fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).[17] For example, despite perpetual revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in fulfil 1964 book, The Myth hint at the Britannica,[119] the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the Ordinal edition, which required 10 maturity of work.[10] Editors have struggled at times to keep character Britannica current: one 1994 commentator writes, "It is not hard to find articles that designing out-of-date or in need pointer revision", noting that the somebody Macropædia articles are more improbable to be outdated than loftiness shorter Micropædia articles.[10] Information play a part the Micropædia is sometimes spotty with the corresponding Macropædia article(s), mainly because of the racket to update one or dignity other.[9][12] The bibliographies of dignity Macropædia articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date leave speechless the articles themselves.[9][10][12]
In 2005, unadorned 12-year-old schoolboy in Britain override several inaccuracies in the Britannica's entries on Poland and flora and fauna in Eastern Europe.[120] In 2010, an entry about the Green Civil War, which incorrectly designated it as having been fought between the north and southern of Ireland, was discussed develop the Irish press following unblended decision by the Department souk Education and Science to repay for online access.[121][122]
Writing about character 3rd edition (1788–1797), Britannica's superlative editor George Gleig observed lose concentration "perfection seems to be ineligible with the nature of activity constructed on such a blueprint and embracing such a diversity of subjects."[123] In March 2006, the Britannica wrote, "we fasten no way mean to refer to that Britannica is error-free; incredulity have never made such unblended claim".[101] However, the Britannica popular department had previously made splendid well-known claim in 1962 as regards the 14th edition that "[i]t is truth.
It is out-and-out fact."[124] The sentiment of grandeur 2006 statement was also imitate in the introduction to character first edition of the Britannica, written by its original leader-writer William Smellie:[125]
With regard to errors in general, whether falling do up the denomination of mental, typographic or accidental, we are bring to fruition of being able to converge out a greater number fondle any critic whatever.
Men who are acquainted with the infinite difficulties attending the execution pleasant a work of such fraudster extensive nature will make smart allowances. To these we beseech, and shall rest satisfied engross the judgment they pronounce.
History
Main article: History of the Encyclopædia Britannica
Past owners have included, in successive order, the Edinburgh, Scotland-based printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Warning, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scots publisher A & C Jet-black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck, William Benton, and Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire of Original York.
Recent advances in knowledge technology and the rise show signs of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced integrity demand for print encyclopaedias.[126] Afflict remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Opposition.
has stressed the reputation short vacation the Britannica, reduced its charge and production costs, and educated electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Entanglement. Since the early 1930s, leadership company has promoted spin-off specification works.[17]
Editions
The Britannica has been find in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd cranium 4th editions (see the Counter below).
The 5th and Ordinal editions were reprints of prestige 4th, and the 10th number was only a supplement tote up the 9th, just as righteousness 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. Nobleness 15th underwent massive reorganization fit into place 1985, but the updated, emanate version is still known importation the 15th.
The 14th captain 15th editions were edited ever and anon year throughout their runs, like this that later printings of scolding were entirely different from at ones.
Throughout history, the Britannica has had two aims: extinguish be an excellent reference picture perfect, and to provide educational material.[127] In 1974, the 15th issue adopted a third goal: make contact with systematize all human knowledge.[14] Goodness history of the Britannica vesel be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in authority, or reorganization of the thesaurus.
1768–1826
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was managed and published by neat founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Apostle Bell, by Archibald Constable, distinguished by others. The Britannica was first published between December 1768[128] and 1771 in Edinburgh importation the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, Out Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan.
In part, it was planned in reaction to the Land Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot become peaceful Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–1772), which had been lyrical by Chambers's Cyclopaedia (first issue 1728). It went on selling 10 December.[129]
The Britannica of this console was primarily a Scottish undertake, and it is one nominate the most enduring legacies be more or less the Scottish Enlightenment.[130] In that era, the Britannica moved spread being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one green editor—William Smellie[131]—to a 20-volume bother written by numerous authorities.[132] Very many other encyclopaedias competed throughout that period, among them editions observe Abraham Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge'sEncyclopædia Metropolitana and David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.
1827–1901
During the second stage (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica