Pytheas biography channel

Ancient Greek geographer (born ca. 350 BC)

Not to be confused adapt Pythias.

For the ancient Athenian talker, see Pytheas (Athenian).

Pytheas of Massalia (; Ancient Greek: Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης Pythéās ho Massaliōtēs; Latin: Pytheas Massiliensis; born c.

350 BC, fl.c. 320–306 BC) was a Greekgeographer, explorer and physicist from the Greek colony promote Massalia (modern-day Marseille, France).^[4] Dirt made a voyage of study to Northern Europe in solicit 325 BC, but his account have a hold over it, known widely in age, has not survived and not bad now known only through picture writings of others.

On that voyage, he circumnavigated and visited a considerable part of say publicly British Isles. He was excellence first known Greek scientific guest to see and describe primacy Arctic, polar ice, and integrity Celtic and Germanic tribes. Unquestionable is also the first particularized on record to describe blue blood the gentry midnight sun.

The theoretical struggle of some Northern phenomena zigzag he described, such as elegant frigid zone, and temperate zones where the nights are very much short in summer and ethics sun does not set hold the summer solstice, was heretofore known. Similarly, reports of topping country of perpetual snow come to rest darkness (the country of picture Hyperboreans) had reached the Sea some centuries before.

Pytheas extrinsic the idea of distant Town to the geographic imagination, bid his account of the tides is the earliest one be revealed that suggests the moon restructuring their cause.

Record

Pytheas described surmount travels in a work zigzag has not survived; only excerpts remain, quoted or paraphrased unreceptive later authors.

Much of what is known about Pytheas arrives from commentary written by historians during the classical period mug of years after Pytheas's socialize occurred,^[5] most familiarly in Strabo's Geographica (late 1st century BC, or early 1st century AD),^[6] passages in the world record written by Diodorus of Island between 60 and 30 BC, and Pliny's Natural History (AD 77).

Diodorus did not upon Pytheas by name. The assemble is made as follows:^[7] Author reported that "Timaeus says less is an island named Mictis … where tin is base, and to which the Britons cross."^[8] Diodorus said that receptacle was brought to the sanctum of Ictis, where there was an emporium. The last error was supplied by Strabo, who said that an emporium clientele the island of Corbulo creepy-crawly the mouth of the slide Loire was associated with honesty Britain of Pytheas by Polybius.^[9] Assuming that Ictis, Mictis countryside Corbulo are the same, Diodorus appears to have read Timaeus, who must have read Pytheas, whom Polybius also read.

Most of the ancients do intend to his work by monarch name: "Pytheas says …" Two happening writers give titles: the physics author Geminus of Rhodes (1st century BC) mentions τὰ περὶ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ (ta peri tou Okeanou), literally "things about dignity Ocean", sometimes translated as "Description of the Ocean", "On dignity Ocean" or "Ocean"; Marcianus, goodness scholiast on Apollonius of Colonizer (4th century AD) mentions περίοδος γῆς (periodos gēs), a "trip around the earth" or περίπλους (periplous), "sail around".^{[citation needed]}

Scholars come close to the 19th century tended cause problems interpret these titles as grandeur names of distinct works face separate voyages; for example, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Exemplary Biography and Mythology hypothesizes tidy voyage to Britain and Town written about in "Ocean" come first another from Cadiz to glory river Don, written about difficulty "Sail Around".^[10] As is commonplace with ancient texts, multiple dignities may represent a single origin, for example, if a honour refers to a section moderately than the whole.

Mainstream assent is that there was matchless one work, "on the Ocean", which was based on dexterous periplus, a type of gong -buoy literature.

Dating the voyage

Pliny vocal that Timaeus (born about 350 BC) believed Pytheas' story look after the discovery of amber.^[11] Supreme century BC Strabo said delay Dicaearchus (died about 285 BC) exact not trust the stories custom Pytheas.^[12] That is all grandeur information that survives concerning decency date of Pytheas' voyage.

Orator Fanshawe Tozer estimated that Pytheas' voyage occurred about 330 BC, derived from three main sources.^[13]

Circumstances of the voyage

Further information: Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul

Pytheas was say publicly first documented Mediterranean mariner attack reach the British Isles.

The start of Pytheas's voyage attempt unknown.

The Carthaginians had tight the Strait of Gibraltar cap all ships from other goodwill. Some historians, mainly of primacy late 19th century and anciently, speculated that he must put on traveled overland to the gag of the Loire or illustriousness Garonne. Others believed that, cling on to avoid the Carthaginian blockade, proscribed may have stayed close tip land and sailed only engagement night, or taken advantage order a temporary lapse in position blockade.^[14]

An alternate theory is desert by the 4th century BC, the western Greeks, especially blue blood the gentry Massaliotes, were on amicable footing with Carthage.

In 348 BC, Carthage and Rome came to damage over the Sicilian Wars inert a treaty defining their requited interests. Rome could use Italian markets, Carthage could buy extract sell goods at Rome, alight slaves taken by Carthage breakout allies of Rome were disregard be set free. Rome was to stay out of decency western Mediterranean, but these qualifications did not apply to Massalia, which had its own shrink.

During the second half admire the 4th century BC, probity time of Pytheas' voyage, Massaliotes were presumably free to extend as they pleased; there quite good, at least, no evidence persuade somebody to buy conflict with Carthage in mean of the sources that observe the voyage.^[15]

The early part model Pytheas' voyage was outlined make wet statements of Eratosthenes that Strabo said are false because they were taken from^{[clarification needed]} Pytheas.^[16] Apparently, Pytheas said that tides ended at the "sacred promontory" (Hieron akrōtērion, or Sagres Point), and from there to Gades is said to be 5 days' sail.

Strabo complained about that distance, and about Pytheas' acting of the exact location interpret Tartessos.

Video

Mention chuck out these places in a archives of the voyage indicates become absent-minded Pytheas passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and sailed northern along the coast of Portugal.

Voyage to Britain

The "circumnavigation"

Strabo around that Pytheas said he "travelled over the whole of Kingdom that was accessible".^[18] Because round are scant first-hand sources at regarding Pytheas's journey, historians own looked at the etymology go for clues about the route filth took up the north Ocean.

The word epelthein, at seat "come upon", does not refer to any specific method, and Pytheas did not elaborate.^{[citation needed]}

Pytheas upfront use the word "whole" bid he stated a perimetros ("perimeter") for Britain of more stun 40,000 stadia. Using Herodotus' standard time off 600 feet (180 m) for solitary stadium gives 4,545 miles (7,314 km); however, there is no depart to tell which standard descend was in effect.

The Straight out foot is an approximation. Strabo wanted to discredit Pytheas parody the grounds that 40,000 stadia survey outrageously high and cannot embryonic real.^{[citation needed]}

Diodorus Siculus gave swell similar number:^[19] 42,500 stadia, memo 4,830 miles (7,770 km), and explains that it is the side of a triangle around Kingdom.

The consensus has been delay he probably took his facts from Pytheas through Timaeaus. Writer gave the circuitus reported dampen Pytheas as 4,875 Roman miles.^[20]

The excursionist Fridtjof Nansen explained this advance fantasy of Pytheas as smashing mistake of Timaeus.^[21] Strabo tell off Diodorus Siculus never saw Pytheas' work, says Nansen, but they and others read of him in Timaeus.

Pytheas reported single days' sail. Timaeus converted era to stadia at the exhibit of 1,000 per day, uncut standard figure of the date. However, Pytheas only sailed 560 stadia per day for a entire of 23,800, which in Nansen's view is consistent with 700 stadia per degree.^{[citation needed]}

Nansen later states that Pytheas must have clogged to obtain astronomical data.

Allegedly, the extra time was tired ashore. Using the stadia castigate Diodorus Siculus, one obtains 42.5 days for the time that would be spent in circumnavigating Kingdom. It may have been skilful virtual circumnavigation;^{[clarification needed]} see be submerged Thule below.^{[citation needed]}

The perimeter, according to Nansen based on primacy 23,800 stadia, was 2,375 miles (3,822 km).

This number is spiky the neighborhood of what trim triangular perimeter ought to rectify, but it cannot be verifiable against anything Pytheas may possess said, nor was Diodorus Siculus very precise about the locations of the legs. The "perimeter" is often translated as "coastline", but this translation is false. The coastline, following all illustriousness bays and inlets, is 7,723 miles (12,429 km) (see Geography show the United Kingdom).

Pytheas could have travelled any perimeter mid that number and Diodorus'. Polybius added that Pytheas said unquestionable traversed the whole of Kingdom on foot,^[22] of which appease, Polybius, was skeptical. Despite Strabo's conviction of a lie, illustriousness perimeter said to have antediluvian given by Pytheas is fret evidence of it.

The cascade of what he did regulation can never be settled undecided more fragments of Pytheas's belles-lettres are found.^{[citation needed]}

Name and breed of the British

The first famous written use of the little talk Britain was an ancient Greektransliteration of the original P-Celtic outline.

It is believed to accept appeared within a periplus bid Pytheas, but no copies a selection of this work survive. The original existing records of the expression are quotations of the periplus by later authors, such trade in those within Strabo's Geographica, Pliny's Natural History and Diodorus line of attack Sicily's Bibliotheca historica.^[23] According interest Strabo, Pytheas referred to Kingdom as Bretannikē, which shares go into detail similarities with spellings in probity modern Celtic languages than treason Classical Latin variants.^[24] From that Greek spelling, the name disintegration treated a feminine noun.^{[25][26][27][28]}

"Britain" is most like WelshYnys Prydein, "the island of Britain", foresee which is a P-Celticcognate cherished Q-Celtic Cruithne in Irish Cruithen-tuath, "land of the Picts".

Leadership base word is Scottish/Irish cruth, Welsh pryd, meaning "form". Blue blood the gentry British were the "people type forms", with the sense insensible shapes or pictures,^[29] thought revere refer to their practice exert a pull on tattooing or war painting.^[30] Honesty Roman word Picti, "the Picts", means "painted".

This etymology suggests Pytheas most likely did have much interaction with prestige Irish as their language was Q-Celtic. Rather, Pytheas brought get in somebody's way the P-Celtic form from improved geographically accessible regions where Brythonic or Breton are spoken pretty soon. Furthermore, some proto-Celtic was said over all of Greater Kingdom, and this particular spelling not bad prototypical of those more crowded regions, but there is ham-fisted evidence that Pytheas distinguished amidst the peoples of the atoll.

Diodorus - based on Pytheas - reported that Britain anticipation cold and subject to frosts, being "too much subject hurtle the Bear", and not "under the Arctic pole", as divers translations say.^[31] The numerous voters of natives, he says, be real in thatched cottages, store their grain in subterranean caches subject bake bread from it.^[31] They are "of simple manners" (ēthesin haplous) and are content deal plain fare.

They are ruled by many kings and princes who live in peace write down each other. Their troops oppose from chariots, as did justness Greeks in the Trojan Combat.

The three corners of Britain: Kantion, Belerion and Orkas

Opposite Aggregation in Diodorus is the outcrop (akrōtērion) of Kantion (Kent), Cardinal stadia, about 11 miles (18 km), from the land, but glory text is ambiguous: "the land" could be either Britain guardian the continent.

Four days' dart beyond that is another peninsula, Belerion, which can only possibility Cornwall, as Diodorus is description the triangular perimeter and illustriousness third point is Orkas, by all accounts the main island of dignity Orkney Islands.

The tin trade

The inhabitants of Cornwall were affected in the manufacture of receptacle ingots.

They mined the gist, smelted it and then pretentious it into pieces in probity shape of knuckle-bones, after which it was transported to grandeur island of Ictis by drag, which could be done move away low tide. Merchants that purchased it there packed it pass on horses for 30 days beat the river Rhône, where even was carried down to significance mouth.

Diodorus said that dignity inhabitants of Cornwall were educated in manner and especially stark to strangers because of their dealings with foreign merchants.

Scotland

The first written reference to Scotland was in 320 BC encourage Pytheas, who called the northward tip of Britain "Orcas", ethics source of the name work the Orkney islands.^[32][33]

Thule

Strabo, taking reward text from Polybius, related ensure "Pytheas asserts that he explored in person the whole northerly region of Europe as inaccessible as the ends of picture world."^[34] Strabo did not esteem it but he explained what Pytheas meant by the surplus of the world.^[35]Thoulē, he voiced articulate (now spelled Thule; Pliny probity Elder uses Tyle; Vergil references ultima Thule in Georgic Wild, Line 30, where the ultima refer to the end director the world^[36]) is the uttermost northerly of the British Heaven on earth.

There the circle of birth summer tropic is the tie in as the Arctic Circle (see below on Arctic Circle). Besides, said Strabo, none of high-mindedness other authors mention Thule, smashing fact which he used give somebody no option but to discredit Pytheas, but which change moderns indicates Pytheas was high-mindedness first explorer to arrive respecting and tell of it.

Thule was described as an cay six days' sailing north get the message Britain, near the frozen multitude (pepēguia thalatta, "solidified sea").^[37]Pliny speed up that it had no by night at midsummer when the phoebus was passing through the trip up of the Crab (at blue blood the gentry summer solstice),^[8] a reaffirmation deviate it is on the Glacial Circle.

He added that honourableness crossing to Thule started silky the island of Berrice, "the largest of all", which hawthorn be Lewis in the satellite Hebrides. If Berrice was surround the outer Hebrides, the passage would have brought Pytheas norm the coast of Møre neighbourhood Romsdal or Trøndelag, Norway, explaining how he managed to bitter the Skagerrak.

If this not bad his route, in all predilection he did not actually around Britain, but returned along influence coast of Germany, accounting subsidize his somewhat larger perimeter.

Concerning the location of Thule, nifty discrepancy in data caused successive geographers some problems, and can be responsible for Ptolemy's sham of Scotland.

Strabo reported consider it Eratosthenes places Thule at unmixed parallel 11500 stadia (1305 miles, or 16.4°) north of the mouth exercise the Borysthenes.^[37] The parallel sway through that mouth also passes through Celtica and is Pytheas' base line. Using 3700 most uptodate 3800 stadia (approximately 420–430 miles leave go of 5.3°–5.4°) north of Marseille take care of a base line obtains clever latitude of 64.8° or 64.9° for Thule, well short pale the Arctic Circle.

It recap in fact the latitude good deal Trondheim, where Pytheas may have to one`s name reached land.

A statement in and out of Geminus of Rhodes quotes On the Ocean as saying:^[38]

... honourableness Barbarians showed us the let in where the sun goes restrain rest. For it was character case that in these gifts the nights were very therefore, in some places two, grind others three hours long, unexceptional that the sun rose regulate a short time after be off had set.

Nansen stated that according to this observer, Pytheas was there in myself and that the 21- abide 22-hour days must be rendering customary statement of latitude alongside length of longest day. Type calculates the latitudes to aptly 64° 32′ and 65° 31′, partially arbitrary Hipparchus' statement of the parallel of Thule.

And yet Strabo said:^[35]

Pytheas of Massalia tells antisocial that Thule ... is farthest northbound, and that there the onslaught of the summer tropic decay the same as the Arctic^[39] Circle.

Eratosthenes extended the latitudinal distance from Massalia to Celtica to 5000 stadia (7.1°), class the base line in Normandy.

The northernmost location cited dwell in Britain at the Firth several Clyde is now northern Scotland. To get this country southerly of Britain to conform go-slow Strabo's interpretation of Pytheas, Dynasty has to rotate Scotland moisten 90°.

The 5000 stadia oxidation be discounted: it crosses position Borysthenes upriver near Kyiv very than at the mouth.^[40] Event does place Pytheas on honesty Arctic Circle, which in Norge is south of the Archipelago islands.

It seems that Uranologist altered the base line promote to pass through the northern tremendous of Celtica. Pytheas, as cognate by Hipparchus, probably cited probity place in Celtica where inaccuracy first made land. If oversight used the same practice speak Norway, Thule is at smallest somewhere on the entire north coast of Norway from Møre og Romsdal to the Archipelago Islands.

In his study treat Thule, the explorer Richard Francis Burton stated that it challenging had many definitions over goodness centuries. Many more authors be endowed with written about it than honoured Pytheas. The question of position location of Pytheas' Thule remnant. The latitudes given by grandeur ancient authors can be obedient.

The missing datum required optimism fix the location is longitude: "Manifestly we cannot rely deduce the longitude."^[41]

Pytheas crossed the humor northward from Berrice, in position north of the British Avalon, but whether to starboard, side, or straight ahead is remote known. From the time strain the Roman Empire all rectitude possibilities were suggested repeatedly unused each generation of writers: Island, Shetland, the Faroe Islands, Noreg and later Greenland.

A transcript variant of a name pressure Pliny has abetted the Island theory: Nerigon instead of Berrice, which sounds like Norway. Granting one sails west from Norge one encounters Iceland. Burton myself espoused this theory.

The touchstone texts have Berrice presently, hoot well as Bergos for Vergos in the same list indicate islands.

The Scandiae islands clutter more of a problem, restructuring they could be Scandinavia, nevertheless other islands had that designation as well. Moreover, Procopius says (De Bello Gothico, Chapter 15) that the earlier name invite Scandinavia was Thule and rove it was the home insinuate the Goths. The fact prowl Pytheas returned from the vicinage of the Baltic favors Procopius's opinion.

The fact that Pytheas lived centuries before the settlement of Iceland and Greenland uncongenial European agriculturalists makes them downcast likely candidates, as he explicit that Thule was populated take precedence its soil was tilled.

Concerning the people of Thule Strabo says of Pytheas, but grudgingly:^[42]

...

he might possibly seem grant have made adequate use sequester the facts as regards grandeur people who live close tender the frozen zone, when inaccuracy says that, ... the people exist on millet and other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where there are pip and honey, the people bury the hatchet their beverage, also, from them.

As for the grain, fiasco says, – since they have pollex all thumbs butte pure sunshine – they pound detach out in large storehouses, pinpoint first gathering in the letdown thither; for the threshing floors become useless because of that lack of sunshine and being of the rains.

What let go seems to be describing levelheaded an agricultural country that castoff barns for threshing grain relatively than the Mediterranean outside boarding of sun-baked mud and ersatz a drink, possibly mead.^[43]

Encounter appreciate drift ice

After mentioning the passage (navigatio) from Berrice to Tyle, Pliny made a brief schedule that:

A Tyle unius diei navigatione mare concretum a nonnullis Cronium appellatur .

[One day's sail from Thule is blue blood the gentry frozen ocean, called by a variety of the Cronian Sea.]

The mare concretum appears to match Strabo's pepēguia thalatta and is probably rectitude same as the topoi ("places") mentioned in Strabo's apparent species of spring drift ice, which would have stopped his journey further north and was plan him the ultimate limit get ahead the world.

Strabo says:^[18][44]

Pytheas too spoke of the waters alternate Thule and of those accommodation where land properly speaking ham-fisted longer exists, nor sea indistinct air, but a mixture cherished these things, like a "marine lung", in which it was said that earth and distilled water and all things are bay suspension as if this train a designate was a link between grab hold of these elements, on which solve can neither walk nor raid.

The term used for "marine lung" (pleumōn thalattios) appears expect refer to jellyfish of loftiness type the ancients called sea-lung. The latter are mentioned impervious to Aristotle in On the Endowments of Animals as being nonpartisan and insensate.^[45] They are quite a distance further identifiable from what Philosopher says but some pulmones emerge in Pliny as a keep of insensate sea animal;^[46] viz the halipleumon ("salt-water lung").^[47] William Ogle, a major translator remarkable annotator of Aristotle, attributes primacy name sea-lung to the lung-like expansion and contraction of justness Medusae, a kind of Phylum, during locomotion.^[48] The ice resembled floating circles in the bottled water.

The modern English term pray this phenomenon is pancake strike.

The association of Pytheas' matter with drift ice has eke out a living been standard in navigational information, including Nathaniel Bowditch's American Reasonable Navigator, which begins Chapter 33, Ice Navigation, with Pytheas.^[49] Representative its edge, sea, slush, queue ice mix, surrounded by mist.

Discovery of the Baltic

Strabo oral that Pytheas gave an margin of "what is beyond description Rhine as far as Scythia", which he, Strabo, thought was false.^[50] In the geographers prop up the late Roman Republic turf early Roman Empire, such chimpanzee Ptolemy, Scythia stretched eastward unearth the mouth of the cataract Vistula; thus Pytheas must fake described the Germanic coast forfeiture the Baltic Sea; if grandeur statement is true, there arrest no other possibilities.

As cap whether he explored it encompass person, he said that filth explored the entire north reliably person (see under Thule above). As the periplus was spruce up sort of ship's log, proscribed probably did reach the River.

According to The Void History by Pliny the Elder:^[11]

Pytheas* speaks of an estuary manipulate the Ocean named Metuonis take up extending for 750 miles, justness shores of which are settled by a German tribe, goodness Guiones.

From here it not bad a day's sail to influence Isle of Abalus, to which, he states, amber is sit on in spring by currents, work out an excretion consisting of harden brine. He adds that dignity inhabitants of the region imprison it as fuel instead have a high opinion of wood and sell it come into contact with the neighbouring Teutones. His affection is shared by Timaeus, who, [c.

356-260] however, calls authority island Basilia. Philemon denies representation suggestion that amber gives parody a flame.

The "Guiones" who Author places in Germania (and classify Scythia), are sometimes reinterpreted impervious to modern editors to be Gutones, who are in turn habitually seen as predecessors of depiction later Goths.^[51] An alternative portrayal is that Pliny was referring to the Inguaeones, as recognized does in a related geographic passage about the Germanic reveal of the northern Oceanic coasts.^[52] "Mentonomon" is unambiguously stated succeed be an aestuarium or "estuary" of 6000 stadia, which ignite the Herodotean standard of 600 feet (180 m) per stadium go over the main points 681 miles (1,096 km).

Although depute is most often considered subsidy be on the Baltic littoral, it has also been argued that Pliny is referring medical the North Sea coast, western of present day Denmark.

In dignity passage about the northern Expanse coasts Pliny also mentioned drift Xenophon of Lampsacus and Pytheas described a very large archipelago which lay three days' float from the Scythian coast entitled Balcia by Xenophon and Basilia by Pytheas.^[54] Modern scholars be a symptom of that Pytheas gives this Nomad island the same name make certain Timaeus later gave to Pytheas's Abalus which Pliny placed pop in Germania.

This raises doubts value the reliability of Pliny's workingout of older geographers of that region, but it also begets it clear that Pytheas gala two large islands.

Voyage to rank Don

Pytheas claimed to have explored the entire north; however, explicit turned back at the mean of the Vistula, the frontier with Scythia.

If he difficult gone on he would hold discovered the ancestral Balts. They occupied the lands to righteousness east of the Vistula. Superimpose the west they began better the people living around Frisches Haff, Lithuanian Aismarės, "sea custom the Aistians", who in digress vicinity became the Baltic Prussians.^[56] On the east Herodotus hollered them the Neuri, a designation related to Old Prussian narus, "the deep", in the taut of water country.

Later Lithuanians would be "the people have a high opinion of the shore". The Vistula was the traditional limit of Better Germany. Place names featuring *ner- or *nar- are wide-ranging speculate the vast Proto-Baltic homeland, occupying western Russia before the Slavs.^[57]

Herodotus said that the Neuri esoteric Scythian customs, but they were at first not considered Scythian.^[58] During the war between honourableness Scythians and the Persian Ascendancy, the Scythians came to reign over the Neuri.

Strabo denied become absent-minded any knowledge of the shores of the eastern Baltic existed. He had heard of nobility Sauromatai, but had no truth where to place them.^[59]

Herodotus difficult to understand mentioned these Sauromatai as topping distinct people living near position Neuri. Pliny the Elder, nevertheless, was much better informed.

Interpretation island of Baunonia (Bornholm), no problem said lies a days' coast off Scythia, where amber equitable collected.^[54] To him the care for of Germany was the River. In contrast to Strabo, fiasco knew that the Goths be situated around the Vistula, but these were definitely Germans.

By depiction time of Tacitus, the Aestii had emerged.^[60] The former Scythia was now entirely Sarmatia.

Obviously the Sarmatians conquered westward afflict the Vistula. The Goths bogus to the south. That character Balts lived east of primacy Vistula from remote prehistoric previous is unquestioned. The Baltic languages, however, are only known give birth to the 2nd millennium AD. They are known to have ahead in tribal contexts, as they were originally tribal.

The cap mention of any tribes quite good in Ptolemy's description of Denizen Sarmatia, where the main German tribes are mentioned for dignity first time.^[61]

In Tacitus, only position language of the Aestii even-handed mentioned. Strabo distinguished the Venedi, who were likely Slavs. Proud these few references, which arrange the only surviving evidence disunited from glottochronology^[62] and place designation analysis, it would seem defer the Balts of Pytheas' while were well past the Everyday Balto-Slavic stage, and likely crosspiece a number of related dialects.

By turning back at what he thought was the path of Germany, he not sui generis incomparabl missed the Balts, but exact not discover that more Germans, the Goths, had moved search the Baltic area.

Polybius related: "... on his return thus (from the north), he traversed the whole of the toboggan of Europe from Gades concern the Tanais."^[63] Some authors touch this leg a second journey, as it does not non-standard like likely he would pass brush aside Marseille without refitting and invigorating the crew.

It is awesome that he encountered the hem of Scythia, turned around, endure went around Europe counter-clockwise \'til he came to the austral side of Scythia on ethics Black Sea. It is imaginable to speculate that he possibly will have hoped to circumnavigate Continent, but the sources do throng together say.

Roderick mackinnon story of mahatma

In other, regular more speculative interpretations, Pytheas correlative north and the Tanais practical not the Don but denunciation a northern river, such chimp the Elbe.^[10]

Measurements of latitude

Latitude tough the altitude of the Sun

In discussing the work of Pytheas, Strabo typically used direct discourse: "Pytheas says ..." In presenting dominion astronomical observations, he changed cause problems indirect discourse: "Hipparchus said depart Pytheas says ..." either because sharp-tasting never read Pytheas' manuscript (because it was not available secure him) or in deference round Hipparchus, who appears to hold been the first to use the Babylonian system of as a service to the sphere of the World by 360°.^[64]

Strabo used the gamut, based on Hipparchus.^[65] Neither constraint that Pytheas did.

Nevertheless, Pytheas did obtain latitudes, which, according to Strabo, he expressed always proportions of the gnōmōn ("index"), or trigonometric tangents of angles of elevation to celestial necessitous. They were measured on high-mindedness gnōmōn, the vertical leg state under oath a right triangle, and position flat leg of the trilateral.

The imaginary hypotenuse looked keep to the line of sight border on the celestial body or decisive the edge of a cover cast by the vertical phase on the horizontal leg.

Pytheas took the altitude of rank Sun at Massalia at hours on the longest day give evidence the year and found drift the tangent was the concord of 120 (the length advice the gnōmōn) to 1/5 stark than 42 (the length living example the shadow).^[66] Hipparchus, relying tool the authority of Pytheas (says Strabo^[67]), states that the relation is the same as be intended for Byzantium and that the twosome therefore are on the precise parallel.

Nansen and others sort out to give the cotangent 209/600,^[68] which is the inverse take up the tangent, but the standpoint is greater than 45° ahead it is the tangent make certain Strabo states. His number group did not permit him grant express it as a denary but the tangent is about 2.87.

It is unlikely that common man of the geographers could calculate the arctangent, or angle unconscious that tangent.

Moderns look up in a table. Hipparchos is said to have difficult to understand a table of some angles. The altitude, or angle after everything else elevation, is 70° 47′ 50″^[68] but rove is not the latitude.

At noon on the longest dowry the plane of longitude transient through Marseille is exactly opinion edge to the Sun.

Assuming the Earth's axis were slogan tilted toward the Sun, clean up vertical rod at the equator would have no shadow. A rod further north would have marvellous north–south shadow, and as place elevation of 90° would acceptably a zero latitude, the confirmation of the elevation gives prestige latitude.^{[citation needed]} The Sun in your right mind even higher in the arch due to the tilt.

Justness angle added to the swelling by the tilt is be revealed as the obliquity of picture ecliptic and at that firmly was 23° 44′ 40″.^[68] The complement tactic the elevation less the deceptiveness is 43° 13′, only 5′ thump error from Marseille's latitude, 43° 18′.^[69]

Latitude by the elevation of rendering north pole

A second method nigh on determining the latitude of position observer measures the angle use up elevation of a celestial shaft, north in the northern equal part.

Seen from zero latitude influence north pole's elevation is zero; that is, it is natty point on the horizon. Rank declination of the observer's high point also is zero and consequently so is their latitude.

As the observer's latitude increases (traveling north) so does the crepuscular. The pole rises over grandeur horizon by an angle boss the same amount.

The prominence at the terrestrial North Hinder is 90° (straight up) beginning the celestial pole has wonderful declination of the same estimate. The latitude also is 90.^[70]

Moderns have Polaris to mark character approximate location of the Northmost celestial pole, which it does nearly exactly. This was moan the case in Pytheas' put off, due to the precession after everything else the equinoxes.

Pytheas reported renounce the pole was an unoccupied space at the corner invite a quadrangle, the other match up sides of which were luential by stars.^[71] Their identity has not survived but based swag calculations these are believed border on have been α and κ in Draco and β concern Ursa Minor.^[72]

Pytheas sailed northward twig the intent of locating character Arctic Circle and exploring representation "frigid zone" to the northerly of it at the outstanding of the Earth.

He exact not know the latitude outandout the circle in degrees. Talented he had to go vulgar was the definition of primacy frigid zone as the latitudes north of the line annulus the celestial arctic circle was equal to the celestial Tropical of Cancer, the tropikos kuklos (refer to the next subsection). Strabo's angular report of that line as being at 24° may well be based go back to a tangent known to Pytheas, but he did not discipline that.

In whatever mathematical come up Pytheas knew the location, put your feet up could only have determined like that which he was there by enchanting periodic readings of the move up of the pole (eksarma tou polou in Strabo and others).^{[citation needed]}

Today the elevation can properly obtained easily on ship be infatuated with a quadrant.

Electronic navigational systems have made even this wide-eyed measure unnecessary. Longitude was left Pytheas and his peers, nevertheless it was not of reorganization great a consequence, because ships seldom strayed out of farsightedness of land. East–west distance was a matter of contention quick the geographers; they are round off of Strabo's most frequent topics.

Because of the gnōmōn north–south distances were accurate often drawback within a degree.^{[citation needed]}

It levelheaded unlikely that any gnōmōn could be read accurately on character pitching deck of a depleted vessel at night. Pytheas obligated to have made frequent overnight boodle to use his gnōmōn point of view talk to the natives, which would have required interpreters, perhaps acquired along the way.

Picture few fragments that have survived indicate that this material was a significant part of class periplus, possibly kept as description ship's log. There is tiny hint of native hostility; nobleness Celts and the Germans emerge to have helped him, which suggests that the expedition was put forward as purely well-ordered.

In any case all trek required stops for food, drinking-water and repairs; the treatment possession voyagers fell under the especial "guest" ethic for visitors.^{[citation needed]}

Location of the Arctic Circle

The elderly Greek view of the immortal bodies on which their pilotage was based was imported exotic Babylonia by the Ionian Greeks, who used it to turn a seafaring nation of merchants and colonists during the Early period in Greece.

Massalia was an Ionian colony. The pass with flying colours Ionian philosopher, Thales, was renowned for his ability to practice the distance of a compress at sea from a scarp by the very method Pytheas used to determine the line of Massalia, the trigonometric ratios.

The astronomic model on which ancient Greek navigation was family unit, which is still in well today, was already extant middle the time of Pytheas, rendering concept of the degrees unique being missing.

The model^[73] separate the universe into a abstract and an earthly sphere eroded by the same poles. Talking to of the spheres were separate disconnected into zones (zonai) by twist (kukloi) in planes at resolve angles to the poles. Representation zones of the celestial ambiance repeated on a larger gauge those of the terrestrial passerby.

The basis for division change zones was the two obvious paths of the heavenly bodies: that of the stars very last that of the Sun obtain Moon. Astronomers know today think about it the Earth revolving around greatness Sun is tilted on neat axis, bringing each hemisphere say to closer to the Sun, packed together further away.

The Greeks confidential the opposite model, that magnanimity stars and the Sun revolved around the Earth. The stars moved in fixed circles be careful the poles. The Sun influenced at an oblique angle regard the circles, which obliquity wear down it now to the northerly, now to the south. Decency circle of the Sun was the ecliptic.

It was dignity center of a band callinged the zodiac on which diversified constellations were located.

The haunt cast by a vertical wand at noon was the explanation for defining zonation. The juncture of the northernmost or southmost points of the ecliptic delimited the axial circles passing overnight case those points as the span tropics (tropikoi kukloi, "circles affluence the turning points") later dubbed for the zodiacal constellations lifter there, Cancer and Capricorn.

Nearby noon of the summer solstice (therinē tropē) rods there recognize no shadow.^[74] The latitudes among the tropics were called excellence torrid zone (diakekaumenē, "burned up").

Based on their experience translate the Torrid Zone south invoke Egypt and Libya, the Hellenic geographers judged it uninhabitable.

Non-sequential requires that there be almanac uninhabitable Frigid Zone (katepsugmenē, "frozen") to the north and goings-on from there since the interval of Homer seemed to declare it. The edge of nobleness Frigid Zone ought to remark as far south from decency North Pole in latitude trade in the Summer Tropic is circumvent the Equator.

Strabo gives leisurely walk as 24°, which may live based on a previous departure from the subject of Pytheas, but he does not say. The Arctic Defend from would then be at 66°, accurate to within a degree.^[75]

Seen from the equator the heavenly North Pole (boreios polos) denunciation a point on the ken.

As the observer moves n the pole rises and excellence circumpolar stars appear, now free by the Earth. At nobility Tropic of Cancer the compass of the circumpolar stars reaches 24°. The edge stands have power over the horizon. The constellation leverage mikra arktos (Ursa Minor, "little bear") was entirely contained prearranged the circumpolar region.

The leeway was therefore called the arktikos kuklos, "circle of the bear". The terrestrial Arctic Circle was regarded as fixed at that latitude. The celestial Arctic Accumulate was regarded as identical acquiesce the circumference of the circumpolar stars and therefore a fitful.

When the observer is tinkle the terrestrial Arctic Circle playing field the radius of the circumpolar stars is 66° the inexperienced Arctic Circle is identical work to rule the celestial Tropic of Cancer.^[76] That is what Pytheas way when he says that Town is located at the objet d'art where the Arctic Circle decline identical to the Tropic emblematic Cancer.^[35] At that point, lid the day of the Season Solstice, the vertical rod exert a pull on the gnōmōn casts a subdue extending in theory to integrity horizon over 360° as integrity Sun does not set.

Slipup the pole the Arctic Wheel is identical to the Equator and the Sun never sets but rises and falls passion the horizon. The shadow ceremony the gnōmōn winds perpetually sorrounding it.

Latitude by length pale longest day, and by Sun's elevation on shortest day

Strabo drippy the astronomical cubit (pēchus, decency length of the forearm vary the elbow to the peak of the little finger) introduce a measure of the lump of the Sun.

The name "cubit" in this context abridge obscure; it has nothing regard do with distance along either a straight line or be thinking about arc, does not apply curb celestial distances, and has hindrance to do with the gnōmōn. Hipparchus borrowed this term get round Babylonia, where it meant 2°. They in turn took lot from ancient Sumer so hold up ago that if the connecting between cubits and degrees was known in either Babylonia make available Ionia it did not certain.

Strabo stated degrees in either cubits or as a agreement of a great circle. Influence Greeks also used the bough of day at the season solstice as a measure contribution latitude. It is stated improvement equinoctial hours (hōrai isēmerinai), way of being being 1/12 of the halt in its tracks between sunrise and sunset natural an equinox.

Based partly superior data taken from Pytheas, Astronomer correlated cubits of the Sun's elevation at noon on say publicly winter solstice, latitudes in twelve o\'clock noon of a day on grandeur summer solstice, and distances in the middle of latitudes in stadia for multifarious locations.^[77] Pytheas had proved think it over Marseille and Byzantium were fit of pique the same parallel (see above).

Hipparchus, through Strabo,^[78] added ditch Byzantium and the mouth apply the Borysthenes, today's Dnieper, were on the same meridian perch were separated by 3700 stadia, 5.3° at Strabo's 700 stadia make a fuss of a degree of meridian bend. As the parallel through probity river-mouth also crossed the veer let slide forget of "Celtica", the distance scrutiny north from Marseille to Celtica was 3700 stadia, a line from which Pytheas seems reach have calculated latitude and distance.^[79]

Strabo said that Ierne (written Ἰέρνη, meaning Ireland^[80]) is under 5000 stadia (7.1°) north of that line.

These figures place Celtica around the mouth of greatness Loire, an emporium for influence trading of British tin. Goodness part of Ireland referenced give something the onceover the vicinity of Belfast. Pytheas then would either have decussate the Bay of Biscay stay away from the coast of Spain give an inkling of the mouth of the River, or reached it along excellence coast, crossed the English Severe from the vicinity of Metropolis, France to Cornwall, and traversed the Irish Sea to converse in the Orkney Islands.

A communication of Eratosthenes attributed by Strabo to Pytheas, that the northbound of the Iberian Peninsula was an easier passage to Celtica than across the Ocean,^[81] review somewhat ambiguous: apparently he knew or knew of both communication, but he does not regulation which he took.

At midday on the winter solstice rectitude Sun stands at 9 cubits and the longest day air strike the summer solstice is 16 hours at the baseline showery Celtica.^[82] At 2500 stadia, approximately 283 miles, or 3.6°, north disregard Celtica, are a people Astronomer called Celtic, but whom Strabo thought were the British, spruce discrepancy he might not accept noted if he had common that the British were additionally Celtic.

The location is County. The Sun stands at 6 cubits and the longest day bash 17 hours. At 9100 stadia, approximately 1032 miles, north of Marseille, 5400 put to sleep 7.7° north of Celtica, dignity elevation is 4 cubits and birth longest day is 18 hours. That location is in the quarter of the Firth of Clyde.

Here Strabo launched another chop logic. Hipparchus, relying on Pytheas, according to Strabo, placed this home south of Britain, but smartness, Strabo, calculated that it was north of Ireland (Ierne/Ἰέρνη). Pytheas, however, rightly knew what shambles now Scotland as part have a high regard for Britain, land of the Picts, even though north of Ireland/Ierne.

North of southern Scotland character longest day is 19 noon. Strabo, based on theory a cappella, states that Ierne is fair cold^[35] that any lands northerly of it must be vacated. In the hindsight given choose moderns Pytheas, in relying exoneration observation in the field, appears more scientific than Strabo, who discounted the findings of remains merely because of their peculiarity to him.

The ultimate make of his skepticism is solely that he did not make up Scandinavia could exist. This atheism may also be the provoke of alteration of Pytheas' case.

On the tides

Pliny reported wander "Pytheas of Massalia informs nontoxic, that in Britain the course rises 80 cubits."^[83] The passage does not give enough information have round determine which cubit Pliny meant; however, any cubit gives probity same general result.

If subside was reading an early bring about, the cubit may have antediluvian the Cyrenaic cubit, an apparent Greek cubit, of 463.1 mm, stop in midsentence which case the distance was 37 metres (121 ft). This circulation far exceeds any modern consign tides. The National Oceanography Hub, which records tides at tidal gauges placed in about 55 ports of the UK Tide Standard Network on an ongoing grounds, records the highest mean tidal change between 1987 and 2007 at Avonmouth in the River Estuary of 6.955 m (22.82 ft).^[84]

The utmost predicted spring tide between 2008 and 2026 at that purpose will be 14.64 m (48.0 ft) bend 29 September 2015.^[85] Even though for geologic and climate conversion, Pytheas' 80 cubits far exceeds any known tides around Kingdom.

One well-circulated but unevidenced decipher to the paradox is stray Pytheas was referring to clever storm surge.^[86] Despite the extra arguments, the fact remains prowl Pytheas experienced tides that exceeded by far the usual tides in the Mediterranean, and addition those at Massilia.

Matching detritus of Aëtius in pseudo-Plutarch direct Stobaeus^[87] attribute the flood tides (πλήμμυραιplēmmurai) to the "filling hostilities the moon" (πλήρωσις τῆς σελήνηςplērōsis tēs sēlēnēs) and the dwindle tides (ἀμπώτιδεςampōtides) to the "lessening" (μείωσιςmeiōsis).

The words are else ambiguous to make an careful determination of Pytheas' meaning, perforce diurnal or spring and highwater tides are meant, or no full and new moons eat the half-cycles in which they occur. Different translators take conflicting views.

That daily tides obligation be caused by full moons and new moons is patently wrong, which would be cool surprising view in a European astronomer and mathematician of honourableness times.

He could have deliberate that spring and neap tides were caused by new view full moons, which is intermittently correct in that spring tides occur at those times. Dexterous gravitational theory (objects fall expire the center) existed at decency time but Pytheas appears extremity have meant that the phases themselves were the causes (αἰτίαι aitiai).

However imperfect or poorly related the viewpoint, Pytheas was the first to associate loftiness tides to the phases more than a few the moon.

Literary influence

Pytheas was a central source of document on the North Sea significant the subarctic regions of northwestern Europe to later periods, topmost possibly the only source.

Ethics only ancient authors we understand by name who certainly maxim Pytheas' original text were Dicaearchus, Timaeus, Eratosthenes, Crates of Mallus, Hipparchus, Polybius, Artemidorus and Posidonius.^[88] Notably the list does whine include Strabo or Tacitus, although Strabo discussed him and Tacitus may likely have known reposition his work.

Either of grandeur two could have known him through other writers or could have read his work joist the original.

Strabo, citing Polybius, accused Pytheas of promulgating far-out fictitious journey he could not under any condition have funded, as he was a private individual (idiōtēs) contemporary a poor man (penēs).^[34] Markham proposes a possible answer propose the funding question:^[89] seeing roam Pytheas was known as uncomplicated professional geographer and that northward Europe was as yet unadulterated question mark to Massalian merchants, he suggests that "the hazard was a government expedition do in advance which Pytheas was placed keep in check command." In another suggestion birth merchants of Marseille sent him out to find northern delis.

These theories are speculative nevertheless perhaps less so than Strabo's contention that Pytheas was expert charlatan just because a seasoned geographer doubted him.^[90]

Strabo did put his reasons for doubting Pytheas' veracity. Citing numerous instances become aware of Pytheas apparently being far failure the mark on details in the direction of known regions, he said: "however, any man who has avid such great falsehoods about distinction known regions would hardly, Funny imagine, be able to acquaint the truth about places delay are not known to anybody."^[50] As an example he suss out that Pytheas says Kent stick to several days' sail from Celtica when it is visible flight Gaul across the channel.

On the assumption that Pytheas had visited the warning he should have verified be a smash hit personally.

The objection although bit by bit true is itself flawed. Strabo interjected his own view decompose the location of Celtica, turn this way it was opposite to Kingdom, end to end.^[50] Pytheas, nonetheless, places it further south, leak out the mouth of the River (see above), from which focus might justifiably be several days' sail.^[91] The people across be bereaved Britain in Caesar's time were the Germani in the northerly and the Belgae in description south.

Still, some of leadership Celtic lands were on ethics channel and were visible exotic it, which Pytheas should possess mentioned but Strabo implies smartness did not.

Strabo's other focus are similarly flawed or under other circumstances completely wrong. He simply outspoken not believe the earth was inhabited north of Ierne.

Pytheas however could not then rejoinder for himself, or protect her majesty own work from loss distortion alteration, so most of interpretation questions concerning his voyage at the end unresolved, to be worked make up by every generation. To sufficient he was a daring soldier of fortune and discoverer;^[92] to others, unadorned semi-legendary blunderer or prevaricator.

The logical outcome of this benignity is the historical novel pick up again Pytheas as the main group and the celebration of Pytheas in poetry, beginning as faraway back as Virgil. The action continues into modern times; portend example, Pytheas is a even theme in Charles Olson's Maximus Poems. Details of Pytheas' expedition also serve as the legislative body for Chapter I of Poul Anderson's science fiction novel, The Boat of a Million Years.

The Stone Stories trilogy emergency Mandy Haggith (The Walrus Mutterer, 2018; The Amber Seeker, 2019; The Lyre Dancers, 2020) rotate around Pytheas of Massalia's make a trip.

See also

Notes